Liberalism - Gerald F. Gaus outlines the general philosophical theory of liberalism. Action - Theories about intentional action and agency; by George Wilson. Actualism - The thesis that there are no merely possible entities; by Christopher Menzel. The Modern History of Computing - Historical survey from Babbage onward; by B. Jack Copeland. Turing Machine - Article on Turing Machines from the Stanford Encyclopedia. The Turing Test - Proposal due to Alan Turing for a criterion of the presence of mind or consciousness; by Graham Oppy and David Dowe. Prisoner's Dilemma - By Steven T. Kuhn of Georgetown University. Dante Alighieri - Life and work of 13th century Italian poet and philosopher; by Winthrop Wetherbee. Jonathan Edwards - Life and work of 18th century American philosophical theologian; by William Wainwright. Confucius - The life and work of the Chinese philosopher and educator; by Jeffrey Riegel. René Descartes' Life and Works - Life and work of 17th century French philosopher; by Kurt Smith. Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics - By Lawrence Sklar. Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics - Describes Everett's attempt to solve the measurement problem by dropping the collapse dynamics from the standard von Neumann-Dirac theory of quantum mechanics. By Jeffrey A. Barrett. Measurement in Quantum Theory - Study of the details and some of the implications of the measurement problem. By Henry Krips of the University of Pittsburgh. The Kochen-Specker Theorem - By Carsten Held. The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - First interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Nields Bohr; by Jan Faye. The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - Interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Hugh Everett according to which many universes exist in parallel at the same space and time; by Lev Vaidman. Relational Quantum Mechanics - An interpretation of quantum theory which discards the notions of absolute state of a system, absolute value of its physical quantities, or absolute event; by Federico Laudisa and Carlo Rovelli. Collapse Theories - Survey of the dynamical reduction program; by Giancarlo Ghirardi. Quantum Mechanics - Survey by Jenann Ismael. Cosmology: Methodological Debates 1932-48 - Discusses philosophical views about cosmology in the 1930s and 1940s; by George Gale. Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy - Survey of work of Thomas Hobbes; by Sharon A. Lloyd. Equality - Survey of social and political equality; by Stefan Gosepath. Constitutionalism - Philosophical survey of the idea that government should be limited in its powers by law; by Wil Waluchow. Sovereignty - Modern notion of political authority of supreme authority within a territory; by Dan Philpott. Aristotle's Rhetoric - Discussion of one of Aristotle's major works; by Christof Rapp. Benjamin Peirce - Life and work of 19th century mathematician and philosopher of mathematics; by Ivor Grattan-Guinness and Alison Walsh. Category Theory - Jean-Pierre Marquis of the University of Montreal introduces the general mathematical theory of structures and systems of structures. Gottlob Frege - Edward N. Zalta of the Metaphysics Research Lab. Church-Turing Thesis - Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand outlines this frequently misunderstood thesis. Alan M. Turing - Life and work of philosopher and mathematician Alan Mathison Turing; by Andrew Hodges. Hilbert's Program - In 1921, David Hilbert made a proposal for a formalist foundation of mathematics, for which a finitary consistency proof should establish the security of mathematics. By Richard Zach. Peirce's Logic - By Eric M. Hammer of Stanford. Charles Sanders Peirce - Life and work of 19th century American logician and philosopher; by Robert Burch. Medieval Theories of Analogy - By E. Jennifer Ashworth of the University of Waterloo. Medieval Theories of Modality - By Simo Knuuttila of the University of Helsinki. Square of Opposition - By Terence Parsons. Peter of Spain (Petrus Hispanus) - Life and work of 13th century logician and author of the Tractatus; by Joke Spruyt. Logic and games - Survey of game-theoretical approaches to logic; by Wilfrid Hodges. Many-Valued Logic - Survey article on multiple-valued logics, by Siegfried Gottwaldof of Leipzig University. Substructural Logics - By Greg Restall of Macquarie University. Modal Logic - Originally the study of deductive behavior of the expressions `it is necessary that' and `it is possible that', now also includes logics for belief, tense, the deontic (moral) expressions. By James W. Garson, University of Houston. Mally's Deontic Logic - Discussion of Ernst Mally's logic of obligation; by Gert-Jan Lokhorst. Temporal Logic - The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on the subject, with a detailed description, application areas and a bibliography. Infinitary Logic - Infinitary Logic is a branch of formal logic where finitary formulae are replaced by potentially infinitary mathematical entities. By John L. Bell. Intuitionistic Logic - The principles L. E. J. Brouwer used in developing his intuitionistic mathematics. By Joan R. Moschovakis, UCLA. Fuzzy Logic - Survey of logical systems with a continuum of truth values; by Petr Hajek. Set Theory - Survey of the mathematical theory of the infinite; by Thomas Jech. Classical Logic - Introduction to classical logic, including completeness and Löwenheim-Skolem theorems; by Stewart Shapiro. The Epsilon Calculus - Discussion of David Hilbert's development of this type of logical formalism with emphasis on proof-theoretic methods; by Jeremy Avigad and Richard Zach. Automated Reasoning - Survey of automated deduction and theorem proving; by Frederic Portoraro. Disjunction - Theory and history of the binary connective 'or'; by Ray Jennings. The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra - Survey of the algebra of two-valued logic; by J. Donald Monk. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Online philosophy reference work, articles are authored and updated by experts in the field. Edited by Edward Zalta. On The Nature of Law - Survey of theories on the conditions of legal validity including natural law theories and legal positivism; by Andrei Marmor. Identity and Individuality in Quantum Theory - Assesses the metaphysical implications of quantum theory by considering the impact of the theory on our understanding of objects as individuals with well defined identity conditions. By Steven French of Leeds University. Globalization - Social theory and philosophy issues in globalization; by William Scheuerman. Pascal's wager - An argument due to Blaise Pascal for believing, or for at least taking steps to believe, in God. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Alan Hájek. Ontological Arguments - Ontological arguments are arguments, for the conclusion that God exists, from premisses which are supposed to derive from some source other than observation of the world. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Graham Oppy. Theological Voluntarism - Survey of divine command theory; by Mark Murphy. Immutability - The doctrine that God cannot undergo real change; by Brian Leftow. Omnipotence - The theistic thesis that God has maximal power; by Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz. Philosophy and Christian Theology - Discussion of philosophical implications of Christian theological views; by Michael Murray. Descartes' Ontological Argument - Discussion of René Descartes ontological proof of the existence of God; by Lawrence Nolan. Feminist History of Philosophy - Survey of feminist writing on the philosophical canon; by Charlotte Witt. Naturalized Epistemology - The view that epistemology is of one piece with natural science; by Richard Feldman. Color - Metaphysical and epistemological accounts of color. By Barry Maund of the University of Western Australia. The Analysis of Knowledge - Survey of analyses of the concept of knowledge, including justified true belief and the Gettier problem; by Matthias Steup. Ancient Skepticism - Two movements in ancient philosophy, Pyrrhonism, and Academic Skepticism. By Leo Groarke. Bayes' Theorem - Discussion of a formula to calculate conditional probabilities which figures in subjectivist approaches to epistemology; by James Joyce. Bayesian Epistemology - Epistemological movement based on Bayesian confirmation and decision theory; by William Talbott. Evolutionary Epistemology - Survey of naturalistic epistemology which emphasizes importance of natural selection; by Michael Bradie and William Harms Formal Learning Theory - Discusses mathematical approaches to normative epistemology; by Oliver Schulte. Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification - Survey of theories according to which knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of noninferential knowledge or justified belief. By Richard Fumerton of the University of Iowa. Qualia - Qualia are introspectively accessible, phenomenal aspects of our mental lives. By Michael Tye. Virtue Epistemology - By John Greco of Fordham. Social Epistemology - Survey of views on the social dimension of knowledge; by Alvin Goldman. Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science - By Elizabeth Anderson. Teleological Notions in Biology - By Colin Allen of Texas A&M. Species - Philosophical theories on what makes a species; by Marc Ereshefsky. The Biological Notion of Self and Non-self - History and discussion of the notion of the immune self; by Alfred Tauber. Biological Altruism - Discussion of how altruistic behavior by organisms fits with the theory of evolution; by Samir Okasha. Biodiversity - Discussion of philosophical issues related to biological diversity; by Daniel P. Faith. Indispensability Arguments in the Philosophy of Mathematics - By Mark Colyvan, University of Tasmania. Constructive Mathematics - By Douglas Bridges from Waikato University. Inconsistent Mathematics - By Chris Mortensen, University of Adelaide. Nineteenth Century Geometry - By Roberto Torretti, Universidad de Chile. Holism and Nonseparability in Physics - Comprehensive article by Richard Healey of the University of Arizona. Being and Becoming in Modern Physics - Discusses implications of general relativity for the philosophy of time; by Steven Savitt. Experiments in Physics - By Allan Franklin, University of Colorado. Space and Time: Inertial Frames - Frames of reference relative to which motion and rest are measured; by Robert DiSalle. Scientific Realism - The thesis that science discovers truths about a theory-independent reality; by Richard Boyd. Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge - Discusses the impact of social relations and values on scientific research; by Helen Longino. Intertheory Relations in Physics - Discussion of theory reduction in science; by Robert Batterman. Scientific Explanation - Philosophical theories about the nature of explanation in science; by James Woodward. Laws of Nature - Philosophical theories about what it is to be a law; by John W. Carroll. Environmental Ethics - Branch of ethics dealing with the moral relationship of humans to the environment; by Andrew Brennan and Yeuk-Sze Lo. Feminist Ethics - By Rosemarie Tong, Davidson College. Consequentialism - The view that normative properties depend only on consequences; by Walter Sinnott-Armstrong. Punishment - Philosophical justifications of punishment; by Hugo Adam Bedau. The Free Rider Problem - Philosophical issues related to collective action; by Russell Hardin. War - Article on the ethics of war and peace, the Just War theory, and pacifism. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Brian D. Orend. Russell's Paradox - By A. D. Irvine. Sorites Paradox - By Dominic Hyde. Curry's Paradox - Discussion of a semantic paradox due to Haskell B. Curry; by J. C. Beall. Dialetheism - Dialeth(e)ism is the view that there are true contradictions. By Graham Priest of the University of Queensland. Paraconsistent Logic - By Graham Priest and Koji Tanaka. The Identity of Indiscernibles - Peter Forrest introduces the principle of analytic ontology formulated by Leibniz, stating that no two distinct substances exactly resemble each other. Relative Identity - The view that there are objects which are the same F yet not the same G; by Harry Deutsch. Informal Logic - By Leo Groarke, Wilfrid Laurier University. Relevance Logic - By Edwin D. Mares, Victoria University of Wellington. Vagueness - By Roy Sorensen. Properties - Entry in the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy by Chris Swoyer. Principally concerned with existence and identity conditions. Coherence Theory of Truth - The truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions. By James O. Young. Deflationary Theory of Truth - According to the deflationary theory of truth, to assert that a statement is true is just to assert the statement itself. By Daniel Stoljar. Identity Theory of Truth - When a truth-bearer is true, there is a truth-maker with which it is identical and the truth of the former consists in its identity with the latter. By Stewart Candlish. Revision Theory of Truth - Theory developed to analyze paradoxes that appear to show that common-sense beliefs about truth are inconsistent. By Eric M. Hammer. The Correspondence Theory of Truth - The thesis that propositions are made true in virtue of corresponding to facts; by Marian David. Truthlikeness - Discussion of notion of verisimilitude, closeness to truth; by Graham Oddie. Logical Constructions - Bernard Linsky, University of Alberta. Logical Form - Introduction to logical form, surface and deep meaning. By Paul M. Pietroski, University of Maryland. Structured Propositions - To say that propositions are structured is to say that they are complex entities, entities having parts or constituents. By Jeffrey C. King. Analysis - The historical development and conceptual structure of philosophical analysis; by Michael Beaney. Singular Propositions - Propositions about a particular object or individual in virtue of having the object or individual as a constituent of the proposition. By G. W. Fitch. Propositional Attitude Reports - Explores semantic accounts of propositional attitude reports, and some of the theories developed to deal with Frege's puzzle. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Thomas J. McKay. Semantic Challenges to Realism - Realism and the representation problem; by Drew Khlentzos. Cognitive Science - The study of mind and intelligence. By Paul Thagard of the University of Waterloo. Connectionism - Movement in cognitive science which hopes to explain human intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks. By James W. Garson of the University of Houston. Mental Representation - According to the Representational Theory of Mind, psychological states are to be understood as relations between agents and mental representations. By David Pitt, CUNY. The Identity Theory of Mind - Evaluates the theory that holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. By J. J. C. Smart of Monash. Epiphenomenalism - Discusses the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by William S. Robinson. Multiple Realizability - John Bickle discusses the contention that a given mental kind (property, state, event) is realized by distinct physical kinds. The Unity of Consciousness - History and philosophical accounts of unity of consciousness; by Andrew Brook. Higher-order Theories of Consciousness - Theories which explain conscious states by their relations to higher-order representations of them; by Peter Carruthers. Consciousness and Intentionality - Discussion of the connection between phenomenal consciousness and intentionality; by Charles Siewert. Panpsychism - The doctrine that mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe; by William Seager. The Computational Theory of Mind - The philosophical theopry that the mind is, or functions like, a computer; by Steven Horst. Eliminative Materialism - The view that some or all of the mental states posited by common-sense do not actually exist; by William Ramsey. The Language of Thought Hypothesis - By Murat Aydede, surveying the arguments for and against the proposition that thoughts are expressed in a mental language. Private Language - By Stewart Candlish from the University of Western Australia. Philosophy for Children - Discusses introduction of philosophy into the school curriculum; by Michael Pritchard. The Hole Argument - The hole argument is an attempt to illustrate how spacetime substantivalism causes errors in a large class of spacetime theories. By John D. Norton of the University of Pittsburgh. Time Travel and Modern Physics - Survey of philosophical woories about inconsistencies inherent in the idea of time travel in the context of modern physics. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Tim Maudlin. Modal Fictionalism - Survey of the view that claims of necessity and possibility are to be construed as fictional claims; by Daniel Nolan. Mereology - The theory of parthood relations: of the relations of part to whole and the relations of part to part within a whole; by Achille Varzi. Incompatibilist (Nondeterministic) Theories of Free Will - By Randolph Clarke. Causal Processes - Bertrand Russell, Wesley Salmon, and conserved quantities. By Phil Dowe of the University of Tasmania. Counterfactual Theories of Causation - Discussion of analysis of causal statements in terms of counterfactual conditionals; by Peter Menzies. Tropes - An article describing tropes by John Bacon. Holes - Short article by Roberto Casati of the École Polytechnique and Achille C. Varzi of Columbia. Events - Survey of philosophical views on the character and status of events; by Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi. Physicalism - Discussion of the thesis that everything is physical; by Daniel Stoljar. Abstract Objects - Survey of attempts to draw the distinction between concrete and abstract objects; by Gideon Rosen. Qualia: The Knowledge Argument - Aims to establish that conscious experience involves non-physical properties. It is one of the most discussed arguments against physicalism; by Martine Nida-Rümelin. Existence - By Barry Miller. Paul Feyerabend - Biographical and expository essay by John Preston of Reading University. Friedrich Nietzsche - Robert Wicks, University of Auckland. Zeno's Paradoxes - Discusses the paradoxes of Zeno of Elea, e.g., Achilles and the Tortoise; by Nick Huggett. William Godwin - Article on the life and work of the founder of philosophical anarchism. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Mark Philp. Johann Georg Hamann - Life and work of this German Enlightenment philosopher; by Gwen Griffith-Dickson. Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach - Life and work of French Enlightenment philosoher; by Michael LeBuffe. Robert Holkot - Life and Work of Robert Holcot, 14th Century English philosopher and theologian; by Hester Gelber. Hegel, G. W. F. - Paul Redding of the University of Sydney. David Hume - Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by William Edward Morris. John Austin - Life and work of 19th century British legal philosopher and founder of legal positivism; by Brian Bix. Albert of Saxony - Life and work of 14th century German logician and philosopher; by Joël Biard. Alcmaeon - Life and work of early Greek medical writer and philosopher-scientist; by Carl Huffman. Aristotle's Ethics - Discussion of Aristotle's ethical views; by Richard Kraut. Aristotle's Metaphysics - Aristotle's notions of category and substance; by S. Marc Cohen. Aristotle's Logic - Survey of Aristotle's logical work, focus on the "Organon," syllogistic, and dialectic. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robin Smith. Aristotle's Political Theory - By Fred D. Miller, Jr of Bowling Green State University. Aristotle's Psychology - Recounts the principal and distinctive claims of Aristotle's psychological writings, especially "De Anima." By Christopher Shields of the University of Colorado. Adorno, Theodor - Life and work of 20th century German philosopher and critical theorist; by Lambert Zuidervaart. Archytas - Life and work of fourth century BC Greek mathematician, political leader and philosopher; by Carl Huffman. Timon of Phlius - Timon (c. 320-230 BC) was the younger contemporary and leading disciple of Pyrrho; by Richard Bett. Alfred North Whitehead - By A. D. Irvine. William of Ockham - Occam (1287-1347) was one of the most important philosophers of the Middle Ages. By Paul Vincent Spade. William Whewell - Life and work of 19th century British philosopher; by Laura J. Snyder. Peter John Olivi - Life and work of one of the most original and interesting philosophers of the later Middle Ages. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robert Pasnau. Maritain, Jacques - By William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University. Salomon Maimon - Life and work of contemporary and critic of Kant; by Peter Thielke and Yitzhak Melamed. Harriet Taylor Mill - Life and work of 19th century English philosopher and proponent of women's rights; by Dale E. Miller. Nicolas Malebranche - Life and work of French Cartesian philosopher; by Tad Schmaltz. Giambattista Vico - Life and work of 18th century Italian philosopher; by Timothy Costelloe. Thomas Reid - Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by Gideon Yaffe. Russell, Bertrand - By A. D. Irvine. Principia Mathematica - Entry by A.D. Irvine discussing Russell and Whitehead's treatise. Original Position - The original position is a hypothetical situation in which rational calculators, acting as agents or trustees for the interests of concrete individuals, are pictured as choosing those principles of social relations under which their principals would do best. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Fred D'Agostino. Richard Rorty - Life and work of 20th century American philosopher; by Bjørn Ramberg. Karl Leonhard Reinhold - Life and work of 19th century Austrian philosopher; by Dan Breazeale. John Buridan - Life and work of late Medieval philosopher; by Jack Zupko. Bosanquet, Bernard - William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University introduces the absolute idealist. Bradley, F. H. - By Stewart Candlish of the University of Western Australia. Brentano's Theory of Judgement - Discussion of Franz Brentano's foundation for logic and epistemology; by Johannes Brandl. Robert Boyle - Life and work of 17th century Irish philosopher and physicist; by J. J. McIntosh, University of Calgary. Bruno Bauer - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Douglas Moggach. Roman Ingarden - Life and work of Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician; by Amie Thomasson. William James - Life and work of 19th century American philosopher; by Russell Goodman. Søren Kierkegaard - Essay about Kierkegaard's life, work, and philosophy by William McDonald. Baruch Spinoza - Life and work of 17th century Dutch Rationalist philosopher; by Steven Nadler. Saadya [Saadiah] - Life and work of Saadya Gaon (Saadya ben Joseph, known in Arabic as Sa'id ‘ibn Yusuf al-Fayyûmî, 10th century theologian, philosopher and rabbi; by Sarah Pessin. Lord Shaftesbury [Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury] - Life and work of 18th century English philosopher; by Michael Gill. George Santayana - Life and work of early 20th century Spanish-born American philosopher; by Herman Saatkamp. Arthur Schopenhauer - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Robert Wicks. Wilfrid Sellars - By Jay F. Rosenberg. Speusippus - Life and work of Speusippus of Athens, son of Plato's sister Potone and head of the Academy; by Russell Dancy. Max Stirner - Life and work of German philosopher of egoism; by David Leopold. Leibniz on the Problem of Evil - By Michael J. Murray, Franklin and Marshall College. Leibniz's Philosophy of Mind - By Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin. John Locke - Influential 17th century British political philosopher. Robert Desgabets - Life and work of 17th century Cartesian philosopher; by Patricia Easton. Donald Davidson - Jeff Malpas of the University of Tasmania. Descartes' Epistemology - By Lex Newman of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Descartes' Modal Metaphysics - Interpretations of René Descartes' ontology of necessities and possibilities; by David Cunning. Plato's Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology - Discussion of Plato's views on metaphysics and the theory of knowledge, including his theory of forms; by Allan Silverman. Arthur Prior - Detailed biographical article by B. Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury. Pyrrho - The life and work of the founder of Pyrrhonism; by Richard Bett. Plotinus - Life and work of this founder of Neoplatonism; by Lloyd Gerson. Karl Popper - By Stephen Thornton from the University of Limerick. Game Theory - Von Neumann and Morgensterns mathematical theory of bargaining, introduced by Don Ross University of Cape Town. Miracles - Exploring Hume's argument and the religious significance. By Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia. Mental Imagery - By Nigel Thomas of Leeds University. Stoicism - Stoicism was one of the new philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period. By Dirk Baltzly. Thought Experiments - By James Robert Brown, University of Toronto. Thomas Aquinas - Biographical and expository essay, by Ralph McInerny. Artifact - By Risto Hilpinen of the University of Miami. Medieval Theories of Conscience - The ability to act on the determinations of conscience is tied to the development of the moral virtues, which in turn refines the functions of conscience. By Doug Langston of the University of South Florida. Probabilistic Causation - "Probabilistic Causation" designates a group of philosophical theories that aim to characterize the relationship between cause and effect using the tools of probability theory. A primary motivation for the development of such theories is the desire for a theory of causation that does not presuppose physical determinism. Animal Consciousness - By Colin Allen of Texas A&M, addressing the qualitative or phenomenological nature of experience. Saint Augustine - By Michael Mendelson of Lehigh University. Divine Illumination - Augustine's doctrine described by Robert Pasnau of the University of Colorado. Medieval Theories of Practical Reason - From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Anthony Celano. Richard the Sophister - Richardus Sophista was an English philosopher/logician who studied at Oxford most likely sometime during the second quarter of the thirteenth century. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Paul Streveler. Philip the Chancellor - Life and work of this 13th-century philosopher, theologian, and lyric poet. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Colleen McCluskey. Saint Anselm - By Thomas Williams, University of Iowa. Behaviorism - By George Graham of University of Alabama at Birmingham. Contractarianism - By Ann E. Cudd, University of Kansas. Representational Theories of Consciousness - By William Lycan, University of North Carolina. Voluntary Euthanasia - By Robert Young, La Trobe University. Feminist Perspectives on the Self - By Diana Meyers of the University of Connecticut. Folk Psychology as Mental Simulation - By Robert M. Gordon, University of Missouri. Folk Psychology as a Theory - By Ian Ravenscroft, the Flinders University of South Australia. Distributive Justice - By Julian Lamont, University of Queensland. Public Justification - By Fred D'Agostino, University of New England, Australia. The Philosophy of Neuroscience - By John Bickle and Peter Mandik. The St. Petersburg Paradox - By Robert M. Martin, Dalhousie University. Reichenbach's Common Cause Principle - By Frank Arntzenius of Rutgers. Historicist Theories of Rationality - By Carl Matheson of the University of Manitoba. The Epistemology of Religion - By Peter Forrest. Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract - By Fred D'Agostino. Conventionality of Simultaneity - By Allen I. Janis, University of Pittsburgh. Supertasks - Introduced by Jon Pérez Laraudogoitia from the University of the Basque Country. Personal Identity - How does a person stay the same person over time? By Eric T. Olson. Egalitarianism - The view that people should get the same or be treated the same; by Richard Arneson. Homosexuality - Philosophical issues in homosexuality and queer theory; by Brent Pickett. Identity Politics - History of the political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups; by Cressida Heyes. Naturalism in Legal Philosophy - Discusses naturalistic theses in the philosophy of law; by Brian Leiter. Realism - Survey of realism and anti-realism in various forms; by Alexander Miller. Moral Skepticism - Survey of forms of scepticism about moral knowledge; Walter Sinnott-Armstrong. Personal Autonomy - Survey of philosophical theories about what it is to govern oneself; by Sarah Buss. Death - Discussion of philosophical issues about death; by Steven Luper. Doing vs. Allowing Harm - Views on the moral difference between doing harm and allowing harm; by Frances Howard-Snyder. Desert - Moral issues of desert (punishment, success) and justice; by Owen McLeod. Privacy - Survey of philosophical views about privacy; by Judith DeCew. Thomas of Erfurt - Life and work of medieval philosopher and member of the Modists; by Jack Zupko. Determinates vs. Determinables - A distinction introduced by W. E. Johnson to apply, e.g., to red and colored; by David H. Sanford. The Definition of Morality - Discussion of various descriptive and normative definitions of the term; Bernard Gert. Friedrich Daniel Schleiermacher - Life and work of the 18th century German philosopher; by Michael Forster. Moral Dilemmas - Discusses cases of conflicting moral requirements; by Terrance McConnell. Finitism in Geometry - Approaches to geometry that do not presuppose an infinity of points; by Jean-Paul van Bendegem. Process Philosophy - View that puts processes at the center of metaphysics; by Nicholas Rescher. Impartiality - Survey of views on moral impartiality; by Troy Jollimore. 18th Century German Philosophy Prior to Kant - Survey of work of, among others, Christian Thomasius and Christian Wolff; by Brigitte Sassen. Justice as a Virtue - Survey of justice as a virtue from Plato to Rawls; by Michael Slote. Cosmopolitanism - The view that all human beings belong to a single community; by Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown. Medieval Theories of Properties of Terms - The theories of proprietates terminorum was the basis of medieval semantic theory; by Stephen Read. Quantum Logic and Quantum Probability - How quantum mechanics can be regarded as a non-classical probabilistic calculus; by Alexander Wilce. Scottish Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century - Survey of the work of William Hamilton, James Frederick Ferrier, and Alexander Bain; by Gordon Graham. The Experience and Perception of Time - By Robin Le Poidevin. The Medieval Problem of Universals - By Gyula Klima. Legal Punishment - Justifications of legal punishment; by Antony Duff. Moral Responsibility - Historical survey of the concept of moral responsibility; by Andrew Eshleman. Francis of Marchia - Life and work of 14th century French theologian; by Christopher Schabel. Integrity - Discussion of integrity as a virtue term; by Damian Cox, Marguerite La Caze, and Michael Levine. Interpretation and Coherence in Legal Reasoning - Survey of theories on legal reasoning; by Julie Dickson. Medieval Theories of Relations - Survey of medieval views concerning the nature and ontological status of relations; by Jeffrey Brower. John Duns Scotus - In-depth article on the life, work, and thought of John Duns Scotus. By Thomas Williams. Moral Particularism - The claim that there are no defensible moral principles; by Jonathan Dancy. Scottish Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century - Survey of Scottish Enlightenment philosophers, including Francis Hutcheson, Henry Home (Lord Kames), and George Campbell; by lexander Broadie. Epistemological Problems of Perception - Discussion of how sense experience justifies or warrants beliefs about the physical world; by Lawrence BonJour. Charles Hartshorne - Life and work of 20th Century metaphysician and philosopher of religion; by Dan Dombrowski. Robert Alyngton - Life and work of 14th Century British philosopher, follower of Wyclif and Burley; by Alessandro Conti. William Penbygull - Life and work of 15th Century Oxford Realist philosopher; by Alessandro Conti. The Problem of Evil - Does the world contain undesirable states of affairs that provide the basis for an argument that makes it unreasonable for anyone to believe in the existence of God?; by Michael Tooley. Philosophy of Childhood - The philosophy of childhood takes up philosophically interesting questions about childhood, about conceptions people have of childhood and attitudes they have toward children; by Gareth Matthews. Libertarianism - Theory about the permissibility of non-consensual force violating property rights in external things and oneself; by Peter Vallentyne. The Moral Status of Animals - Philosophical theories about the difference between animals and humans responsible for the moral status of humans. By Lori Gruen. Aesthetic Judgment - Philosophical theories about judgments of taste; by Nick Zangwill. Reflective Equilibrium - The result of a process of reflection on an area of (moral) inquiry, a notion figuring prominently in Rawls' Theory of Justice; by Norman Daniels. Episteme and Techne - Discussion of the distinction between knowledge and craft, or art in ancient philosophy; by Richard Parry. Frege's Logic, Theorem, and Foundations for Arithmetic - By Edward N. Zalta of Stanford University.