Aristotle - The life and work of the 4th century BCE Greek philosopher. Parmenides - Greek philosopher and poet. Plato - Biography and description of the philosophy of Plato. Descartes, René - Early modern philosopher who rejected religious authority in the quest for scientific and philosophical knowledge. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Free online encyclopedia. Edited by James Fieser and Bradley Dowden, hosted by the University of Tennessee at Martin. Natural Theology - Used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe knowledge of God drawn from nature. Deism, English - Explores the deism of Hobbes, Locke, Tindal, and the influence of Hume. Deism, French - The deism of Voltaire and Rousseau. Eckhart, Meister - 13th century Dominican mystic who was almost forgotten until Franz von Baader revived his memory in the nineteenth century. Cicero, Marcus Tullius - 1st century BCE Roman orator and philosopher of the New Academy. Xenophon - Pupil of Socrates, who contributed to the record of his life. Time - Long article about questions of time discussed throughout the history of philosophy. Menippus - Third century BCE Greek philosopher and satirist. Democritus - 4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera who expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. Moral Philosophy - Introduction to ethics, with links to other articles at the IEP. Virtue Theory - View that morality is the development of or virtues. Shpet, Gustav - Leading proponent of Russian transcendental phenomenology. Aenesidemus - Biography of the 1st century philosopher who defended the ten tropes of skepticism. Anaxarchus - 4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera, from the school of Democritus. Anaximander - Greek philosopher of Miletus, born 611 BCE who thought it unnecessary to fix upon air, water, or fire as the original and primary form of body. Antisthenes - Athenian philosopher and founder of the Cynic sect who was born around 440 BCE. Aristippus - Description of the life and teachings of the philosopher Aristippus, founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. Anaxagoras - Greek philosopher born about 500 BCE, responsible for giving philosophy a home at Athens and the first philosopher to introduce a spiritual principle which gives matter life and form. Herbert of Cherbury, Edward - 17th century historian, poet (brother of George), and philosopher. Sought to determine the nature and standard of truth, and conditions of knowledge. Precursor of the philosophy of Common Sense. Ferrier, James Frederick - The earliest absolute idealist in English philosophy. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb - One of the major figures in German philosophy in the period between Kant and Hegel. Gorgias - Greek sophist and rhetorician, known as "the Nihilist," born in 483 BCE. Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard Von - 19th century German philosopher who attempted to combine the idea of Hegel with the will of Schopenhauer in 'spiritual monism.' Hamilton, William - 19th century exponent of the Scottish common-sense philosophy. Helvetius, Claude Adrien - One of the 18th century Encyclopedists who held the skeptical and materialistic views common to that school of philosophy. Mill, John Stuart - 19th leader and prophet of utilitarianism, heir to the Hume-Bentham line, and influential force in modern political theory. Author of On Liberty (1859), and Utilitarianism (1863). Rousseau, Jean Jacques - 18th century French author of the Social Contract, influential during the French Revolution. Carnap, Rudolf - Extensive article about his life and work, by Mauro Murzi. Spinoza, Benedict - 17th century pantheist, critic of Descartes. Stephen, Leslie - 19th century British academic. Reichenbach, Hans - Leading German philosopher of science, and logical positivist. Greek Philosophy - The philosophical currents of Ancient Greek philosophy are introduced, from the Presocratic philosophers through to Proclus. Lucretius - Roman poet and advocate of Epicurean philosophy. Locke, John - Article on the life and work of the influential philosopher. Diogenes of Sinope - 4th cn. BCE cynic philosopher of Sinope. Damon - 5th century BCE Pythagorean philosopher of Syracuse. Prodicus - 5th century BCE sophist, possibly a mentor of Socrates Protagoras - Early Greek sophist. Paley, William - 18th century British theologian. Poincaré, Jules Henri - 19th century French philosopher of science. Plotinus - 3rd century CE founder of Neo-Platonism. Pythagoras - The 6th century BCE philosopher. Bacon, Francis - 16th century philosopher and politician. Hempel, Carl Gustav - A leading member of logical positivism, the German philosopher died in 1997. Academy - Description of the philosophical institution founded by Plato, which advocated skepticism in succeeding generations. Animals and Ethics - Consideration of moral status of non-human animals. Aquinas, Thomas - The life and work of the major figure in scholastic philosophy. Augustine - Extensive article on the life and work of the 4th century ecclesiastical author. Behaviorism - Theory in philosophy of mind which maintains that talk of mental events should be translated into talk about observable behavior. Bentham, Jeremy - Extensive article on the 18th century 'founder' of utilitarianism. Butler, Joseph - 18th century icon of a highly intellectualized theology. Chrysippus - Prolific stoic of Soli, and disciple of Cleanthes. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John - 18th century Tory disciple of Locke. Berkeley, George - Influential 18th century Irish philosopher. Cumberland, Richard - 17th century critic of Hobbes and the neo-Platonists. Cleanthes - Stoic philosopher of Assus in Lydia, disciple of Zeno of Citium. Demonax - Philosopher of the second century CE. who tried to revive the philosophy of the Cynic School. Dewey, John - Leading light of the 20th century American school of thought known as pragmatism. Diderot, Denis - The most prominent of the French Encyclopedists and one of the leaders of the Enlightenment. Diogenes Laertius - 3rd century biographer of ancient Greek philosophers. Evolution - Introduces evolution through the ages, from the ancient Greeks, through Leibniz and Descartes to Darwin and Spencer. Empedocles - 5th century BCE philosopher who combined medical study with Orphic mysticism. Epictetus - Eminent Stoic philosopher, born as a slave at Hieropolis in Phyrgia in 55 CE. Epicurus - 4th century BCE materialist, empiricist, and hedonist. One of the major philosophers of the Hellenistic period. Euclides - 4th century BCE native of Megara, and founder of the Megarian or Eristic sect. Emanation - The theory that all derived or secondary things flow from the primary. Egoism, Psychological and Ethical - Maintains that the individual self is the motivating moral force and the end of moral action. Eclecticism - Group of ancient philosophers who sought to reach by selection the highest degree of probability in the search for truth. Hölderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich - Examines the poet's role in the development of German Idealism. Husserl, Edmund - Leader of the German phenomenological movement. Chinese Room Argument - John Searle's thought experiment is one of the best known counters to claims of artificial intelligence. Active Powers - The capacities of impulse and desire which lead to or determine human action, as described by 18th and 19th century Scottish common sense philosophy. Anaximenes - 5th century BCE Greek philosopher of Miletus who regarded 'air' as the primary form of body. Anselm - 11th century English prelate who developed views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians. Bakhtin Circle - School of Russian thought centered on the work of Bakhtin which focused on questions of signification in artistic creation. Beccaria, Cesare - 18th century aristocrat whose work 'On Crimes and Punishments (1764)' inspired reform in the Italian criminal justice system. Caird, Edward - Nineteenth century Scottish philosopher who was one of the key figures of the idealist movement that dominated British philosophy from 1870 until the mid 1920s. Social Contract Theory - View that morality is based on social agreements that serve the interests of those who make the agreement. Davidson, Donald - Introduction to one of the most significant philosophers concerned with philosophy of mind and action of the 20th/21st century. Cudworth, Ralph - 17th century 'Cambridge Platonist' who fought for preservation of religious ideals, including divine illumination. Cyrenaics - Description of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, which flourished from the 5th-3rd centuries BCE. The Cyrenaics were skeptics and hedonists. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann - Aimed to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God. Freud, Sigmund - Lenghty article on the father of psychoanalysis who is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century. German Idealism - The German reaction to empiricism, including related theories of Kant, Fichte, Hegel and others. God, Western Concepts of - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on God from Socrates to Nietzsche. Hegelians, St. Louis - 19th century group of amateur American philosophers founded and led by William Torrey Harris. Heraclitus - 5th century BCE. Presocratic Greek philosopher. Hippias - Hippias was a sophist, a contemporary of Socrates, and an enthusiast for universality. Hobbes, Thomas - 17th century British philosopher. Author of Leviathan (1651). Hodgson, Shadworth - Follower of Kant, founder of the Aristotelian Society. Humanism - Brief article on Erasmus and the Italian humanist movement. Huxley, Thomas Henry - 19th century zoologist and advocate of Darwinism. Identity Theory - Form of monistic materialism which maintains that mental states and brain activities are identical. Interventionism - Examines the nature and justifications of interfering with another polity or choices made by individuals. Encyclopedists - Group of French philosophers and men of letters who collaborated in the production of the famous Encyclopedie. Stoic Philosophy of Mind - Description of the philosophy of Mind of the Stoics, including the relationship between mind and body, perception, action-theory, and emotion. Just War Theory - Some of those who have attempted to justify war include Aquinas, Grotius, and Pufendorf. Positivism, Legal - Theory that law is manufactured according to certain social conventions. Lombard, Peter - French scholastic theologian of the 12th century, influenced by Abelard. Moral Luck - Andrew Latus, St. Francis Xavier University, summarizes the discussion between Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams on the question: Can luck ever make a moral difference? Neoplatonism - The revival of Greek philosophy in 3rd century BCE, led by Plotinus and his disciple, Porphyry. Influenced by both Pythagoras and Plato. Solipsism - The doctrine of the solipsist is that existence means my existence and that of my mental states. Peripatetics - Brief history of the Peripatetic doctrines. Pyrrho - 4th century BCE founder of the Greek school of skepticism. Roman Philosophy - Short introduction to Roman philosophy from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Shaftesbury, Earl of - Patron of John Locke Skepticism, Ancient Greek - A description of skepticism in Ancient Greece, led by Pyrrho. Skepticism, Contemporary - Introduction to the current discussion of skepticism. Solovyov, Vladimir - 19th century Russian philosopher. Sophists - Teachers of philosophy in Ancient Greece, including Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus and Hippias. Stoicism - Description of the system of ethics, popular in Ancient Greece, which has physics as its foundation. Symposium - Drinking-parties in Ancient Greece where the guests reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of flowers. Synderesis - Scholastic philosophy describes this as the principle in moral consciousness which directs an agent to good. Voluntarism - Theory that God or the ultimate nature of reality is conceived as some form of will. Russell's Paradox - Examines self-referential linguistics used to describe properties and sets. Truth - Philosophical theories on the nature of truth, by Bradley Dowden and Norman Swartz. Rights, Human - A treatment of the origins and development of the theory of human rights, with philosophical analysis, justifications, and criticisms. Vienna Circle - Organised the development of logical positivism in the 1920s. Included Carnap, Feigl, Frank, Gödel, Hahn, Kraft, Neurath, Waismann. Popper and Wittgenstein also had association with the Vienna Circle. Renaissance - Brief article on the transition between Middle Ages and modernity. Stilpo - 4th century BCE member of the Megarean school. Stirling, James Hutchison - 19th century British Idealist, Hegelian academic. Thales - Detailed biographical essay on the Ancient Greek philosopher. Timon - 3rd century BCE disciple of Pyrrho. Ockham, William of - Detailed biography of the 14th century Franciscan. Warburton, William - 18th century Church of England bishop, and critic of the Deists. Theophrastus - Philosopher of the Peripatetic school, successor to Aristotle at the Lyceum. Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich - 18th century German philosopher, famous for effective criticism of Kant. Leucippus - 5th century BCE founder of atomism. Wittgenstein, Ludwig - Detailed essay on the life and work of the 20th century philosopher. Lotze, Rudolf Hermann - 19th century German philosopher who criticised the pantheism of Hegel. Natural Law - Standards that govern human behavior objectively derived from the nature of human beings.